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Some Words in Euskara
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history
legends
Some of my favorite places in the Basque Country
Gernika Tree
Gernika, Vizcaya
Fishermen - Pescadores
Archaeological and ethnographic findings indicate that Basque man evolved from Cro-Magnon man in this area over a period dating from about 40,000 years ago until distinct features were acquired approximately 7,000 years ago. Two thousand years later the sheep, not native to these lands, was introduced and horse and cattle farming came into being, as shown by Adolf Staffe. These circumstances made it necessary for the people to travel periodically and cultural contacts were thus made.
This period in the history of the Basque people can only make sense if it is studied in conjunction with the cultures of the surrounding areas, in the basin of the River Ebro and the region of Aquitaine.
Jose Miguel de Barandiaran states "This area is of particular importance in Basque archaeology and linguistic history as it coincides with the area of seasonal migration of flocks in search of pastures in the Pyrenees and where Basque place names are found in general." Luis Michelena reports that the Basque language has been spoken by these peoples since around 6,000 B.C. Basque was spoken in the whole of South Aquitaine and eastwards, to inside Catalonia (proved by inscriptions and place names). From the sixth century B.C. Indo-European culture wiped out all the pre-Indo-European languages spoken in Europe up to that time, with the exception of the Basque language.
Serious cultural and political problems arose from the above circumstances.
Rand McNally's linguistic map and the Goetz's Universal History divide up the languages spoken in the world [I think he means Europe here - Blas] as follows: Germanic, Slavonic, Celtic, Romance, Mongol, along with those spoken by the Albanians, Arabs, Greeks, Lithuanians, Latvians, Berbers, Armenians, Caucasians, Iranians and Basques.
As far as religion is concerned the direction in which corpses were pointed leads us to believe there was some kind of sun worship.
This well-defined pre-historic Basque people began to feature in history. The worst thing that can happen to a people is for it not to write its own history as this means such a people is at the mercy of other historians. The first news of the Basque people comes to us through the ancient geographers, in particular Pliny and Ptolemy. The "Journey of Antoninus" mentions names that indicate that the land of the Basques extended, not only to Aquitaine in the north but also far down the River Ebro to the south.
P. Villasante says that the Basques, in calling themselves "Euskaldunak" (those who speak Basque [Euskera]) and the country "Euskalerria", i.e. Basque speaking country, are making cultural history in that it is the language that has moulded and given the Basque people a sense of unity, a sense of being a nation. Antonio Tovar comfirms this and explains the situation by saying that the Basques did not take part in the battles between Carthaginians and Romans; Silius Italicus refers to the fact that there were Basque soldiers in Hannibal's armies. The Basque only intervened to defend Sertorius, the Roman general who had shown respect for them. The relationship between Romans and Basques was cordial. Pompey founded Pompaelo, Pamplona, in the settlement that was Iruña (the city in Basque). Roman influence further north was less evident, however. This meant that the Basque language survived in its entirety, with its multiple influences.
In the third and fifth centuries the Basques defended themselves against the Barbarians who came south to the Iberian Peninsula. After fighting the Germanic Swabian tribes, they went into battle against the Visigoths. The latter gained several victories over the Basques and founded Victoriacum in the year 581 in the proximity of present day Victoria, which was in turn founded by Sancho the Wise on the site of the ancient settlement of Gasteiz.
The Basques moved to and fro on each side of their land of the Pyrenees and fought against the armies of Suintila, Recesvinto, and Wamba in the eighth century when Tarik disembarked in 711 with 7,000 Berber soldiers in what is now Gibraltar, and defeated the Goths. This saved the Basques from both Gothic and Moslem occupation. Christianity probably penetrated the Basque country in the third and fourth centuries from the south. It may also have been introduced from the north. The centre of Christian activity may be taken as Calahorra, in Pamplona, which had a Bishop as far back as the times of the Visigoths. Oca had the Bishop of the Autrigones. In the north were Eauze, Aire, Bazas, Oloron, Lescar, and Dax. Paganism probably died out well before the eleventh century, perhaps, as sensed by Navarro Villoslada, even in the eighth century; although pagan and Christian practices lived side by side "as late as the downfall of the Visigoths". Manaricua states "It would be absurd to think that paganism ceased to exist completely from the moment Christianity began to penetrate these lands. If a Christian inscription does not authorize us to say that the Basque country was converted to Christianity, then neither does a pagan inscription lead us to the conclusion that the Basque country continued to be pagan."
The Basques, who did not constitute a monolithic political unity, but rather a people with a certain amount of confederate organization, began to establish themselves as a political unit, with the Duchy of Vasconia, which covered the area from the River Ebro, upwater from Saragossa, to the shores of the Garrone and which was established at the beginning of the seventh century, according to Ildefonso de Gurruchaga. Fredegaire, a French chronicler of the period, reports that the first Duke of Vasconia was Genial (602), imposed by the Franks. The Basques then became independent and at the beginning of the ninth century the Kingdom of Pamplona was established under King Inigo de Aritza. At this time battles were still taking place against the Franks to the north and the Arabs to the south. Kink Inigo was of the Iniguez family, who were much opposed to the territorial possessions of the Franks south of the Pyrenees, and he contributed greatly to the unification of the country. This Kingdom of Pamplona was later to be known as the Kingdom of Navarre.
By then it had become a smaller territory, where the people with classical Basque features were settled. This region corresponded more or less to the area occupied by the present-day Basque Country.
When the boundaries were drawn in 1016 between Navarre and the County of Castile, what would now be the Basque country was included in Navarre. The reign of Sancho VII the Strong was the last in the line of Basque monoarchies beginning with that of Inigo or Eneko de Aritza. The line lasted four centuries until such time as Giupuzcoa, Alava, and Vizcaya broke away from the Kingdom amid a difficult political situation and became integrated in Castile under a treaty in 1200.
The incorporation of these lands into Castile came about as the result of personal treaties with the King. Navarre was invaded by Castile joined by Pope Julius II, Henry VIII of England, Maximilian of Austria, and Ferdinand the Catholic. The Castilian, Catholic king said that this conquest was only a wartime one (with France). However, when he made peace with Louis XII in 1513, he kept the land by force and swore to respect its sovereignty, the Statues of Navarre, under a Viceroy. This was registered in the Cortes of Burgos "united on an equal basis, each retaining (Castile and Navarre) its ancient character in laws, territory, and government." The Statutes governed the independence of the Basque regions. This was the origin of the Basque Statute System.
This agreement was the same in the four regions of the Peninsula: Alava, Guipuzcoa, Vizcaya, and now Navarre as in the continental regions with England and France. The agreements were ratified with each new king who came to the throne. The political union did not mean that these areas comprised one single kingdom, or that the Basques were the subjects of these kings but that they were governed directly by the Biltzar in what is now the French Basque country, and by the General Assemblies in those areas with Spanish administration.
"Many lords and great kings of Spain", says Adrian Celaya, "signed and adhered to these texts which differ greatly from the usual practice of the period". Quoting Lemonauria and Balparda, he adds "The Statutes of Vizcaya in essence are the Statutes of Man". These Statutes or Rules of Freedom or Systems of Sovereignty or Autonomy have led the Basques to fight for their rights over the course of history.
When the Basques surrendered after the first Carlist War in 1839, they did so on the promise that their Statutes would be respected. The promise was not kept, however. The Bill put forward by the Government stipulating that "The Statutes of the Basque Provinces and of Navarre are herein confirmed", contained a pitfall in that it went on to say "without prejudice to the constitutional unity", a constitutional unity that had not existed up to that time. Nevertheless, this did not hinder the proclamation of the decree on 16th November 1839, under which the Basque judiciaries and legislature were withdrawn, meaning de facto that for the first time during the course of history from 1200 onwards,Basque juridical and constitutional unity was established. The Basque defeat in the war allowed for the transfer of the Spanish Customs to Hendaye in 1841. Up to then the Customs had been in Miranda and Vitoria, the Frontier of the Basque Country with Castile.
The Basques also lost the second Carlist War and this defeat meant the advent of the Law of Abolition of the Statutes (almost all that still remained of the sovereignty), proclaimed in July 1876. This law brought in compulsory national service in the Spanish Army and the payment of taxes, although this was in fact through a private Economic Agreement.
The Basque nationalist movement, inspired by Sabino de Arana y Goiri, founder of Eusko Alderdi Jeltzalea/Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) came into being to oppose these outrages. Another movement was also being founded at this time in Navarre under the auspices of Arturo Campion and Juan de Iturralde. Thus, when the Spanish Republic, established on 14th April 1931, granted autonomy to Catalonia, the Basque nationalists, inspired by Sabino de Arana, and led by Jose Antonia de Aguirre, began a large scale, well planned campaign for Basque autonomy: Meeting of Local Corporations on 15th June 1931 in Estella: Referendum on the Statute at the local level in 1932, in which the Nationalists obtained an overwhelming majority in Alava, Guipuzcoa, and Vizcaya (245 municipalities in favour and 23 against). This result proved negative for the co-existence of the four regions, with which the war of 1936 could possibly have been avoided. Nevertheless, events were to be so in 1932 and a year later the local corporations of Alava, Guipuzcoa, and Vizcaya were consulted again. Victory was gained by the Autonomists and a plebiscite was then held, the result being 82% in favour. The decision regarding the Basque Statute had already been rendered when the military uprising came about. This divided the Basques into two, and when the Government of the Republic officially granted the Autonomy of the Basque Country, it was only able to be applied in the provinces of Guipuzcoa and Vizcaya. On 8th October 1936 Jose Antonio de Aguirre was sworn in as first Lehendakari (President). The Autonomous Government's immediate action was to pronounce the Ikurrina or Basque flag as official and to create the Basque Army and the Basque University. The Basques fought heroically against oppressive international troops, especially after the great offensive that began with the bombarding of Durango on 31st December 1937 (520 dead and 730 wounded between this offensive and that of 2nd April). Then on 26th April came the merciless, criminal bombardment of Guernica by the German Luftwaffe to test their burnt earth tactics. This was the first bombardment of its kind in the world and caused 1,654 dead and 889 wounded; the penetration of the lines, and the occupation of Bilbao on 19th June. The Basque troops surrendered in the prison of Dueso. Numerous executions at the hands of the firing squads were carried out and prisons and concentrations camps were set up. Lehendakari Aguirre continued with the Basque troops who were fighting in Catalonia until he left for France on foot and in the company of President Companys.
The Basque Government established itself in Paris and resolved many of the problems facing Basque exiles. When Aguirre died in 1960, he was replaced by Jesus Maria de Leizaola. The Basque Exile: After the first surge of exiles at the beginning of 1936 throught Irun and across the Bidasoa, a second mass exit took place at the end of the fighting in Basque territory in 1937. At the anxious request put forward by Aguirre to the democratic nations, children were evacuated to avoid the tragedy and risk of the last to months of resistance. Thus, between 6th May and 12th June, seven days before the fall of Bilbao, various ships set sail carrying children accompanied by their teachers, priests, and other aid: 3,301 to Belgium, 3,957 to England, 245 to Switzerland, 1,362 to the USSR, 22,234 to France, 105 to Denmark and 6,200 to Catalonia, making a total of 37,304. The last train for Santander left Bilbao on 18th June and about 80,000 people sailed from the Cantabrian capital, mostly old people, women and children, and 8,000 wounded. All the above took place during the second period of exile.
The third exile was from Catalonia to France and from France to America. Official Basque Government information estimates that over 150,000 Basques spent some time in exile in France. This is an enormous number if one takes into account that the entire population of the four Basque provinces of the Spanish State in 1936 was only 1,300,000.
Political life in the Basque Country between the end of the Spanish Civil War in 1939 and the end of the Second World War in 1945 may be summed up as follows:
An intelligence network between prisoners and the Basque Government in Paris, comprising 21 people in the four Basque regions, was uncovered by Franco's police at the end of 1940. The trial was held on 3rd July 1941. The High Court requested 8 death sentences. The final sentences were 30 years imprisonment for 6, 25 years for 7, 20 for 2, and 1 acquittal. There were five women among those sentenced. One death sentence was passed and the Alavan, Luis Alava was executed on 6th May 1943. When the Second World War broke out, Lehendakari Aguirre was in Belgium as the Nazis invaded this country. After many adventures in Germany, he managed to escape to Sweden and from there sailed to Brasil, finally arriving in New York where he managed to assemble part of his Government in 1942. Joseba de Rezola organized a Resistance cell in Madrid at the service of the Basque Government against the Franco regime. Rezola was arrested but managed to flee from the Guardia Civil across the Bidasoa.
Lehendakari Aguirre returned to Europe at the end of the Second World War in 945. He established contact with the Basque Nationalist Party (EAJ), organized links between the Basque Resistance in France and that in Spain, with headquarters in Donostia (San Sebastian), led by Juan de Ajuriaguerra. In 1945 the Treaty of Bayonne was signed by all the parties involved with the Basque country and "who had fought for democracy or who were prepared to do so" (Irujo). Those featured were: EAJ/PNV (Basque Nationalist Party), ANV, the Basque Communist Party, UGT, Euskadi Mendigoizale Batza, Republican Left, Socialist Central Committee of Euskadi, Federal Republican Party, CNT, and ELA/STV. Out of this treaty came the Basque Advisory Council, whose task was to organize the groups who worked underground inside the Basque Country for the Basque Government. Later the Resistance Assembly was formed. This organization represented the Basque Government through a board inside the Basque Country. The differences with the PSOE (Spanish Workers' Socialist Party) became evident at this time when an idea proposed in 1940 was put into practice whereby all the parties comprising the Basque Government were called upon to make a declaration of nationality. The socialist Councillor Toyos refused to do this. His fellow party member, Santiago Aznar made the declaration and was expelled from the Spanish Workers' Socialist Party. The republican parties accepted this declaration of Basque nationality.
A Basque Battalion, led by Commander Ordoki, the "Gernika" fought against the Germans.
Among the many activities in which he was involved as leader of the Basque Government, Aguirre played an extremely important role in the organization and development of Christian Democracy and the European Movement. Javier de Landaburu was a key figure in European Christian Democracy, a representative of the Basque Team, as Vice President of the Basque Government when Aguirre died, until his untimely death in 1963. Joseba de Rezola then took over power. There was some preparation for armed struggle in 1945 when United States instructors trained some Basque groups and in the following year on the frontier under the auspices of Lino Lazkano. This prospect lasted until the Americans replaced their "antifascism" by "anticommunism". This was a product of the cold war and was the basic agreement between the Allied Forces and the Soviet Union. Here it was quite clear that who was favoured was Franco. The General Strike of 1947 came in the wake of the repression in 1945 and 1946 of the efforts of reconstitution of the Basque Nationalist Party and the ELA/STV. The strike broke out in Vizcaya and extended to Guipuzcoa and around 60,000 workers were involved. The Resistance Council spread the news around the world and informed the United Nations. The repression was extremely severe. The Basque socialists accepted the terms of the Iberian Confederation after the recent common struggle. "They confirmed even more vehemently their support of the Government and their respect for the Basque Nationalist Party." In 1947 Laureano Lasa published an article in the Gazette of the Centre for Socialist Studies of Euskadi, in which he emphasized the favourable attitude of the socialists towards the Iberian Confederation in the Congress of 1919, in the process of law of the Republic. Two months later, in September, Euskadi Socialista published an article signed by "E.G." stating in explicit terms that "the Basque Nationalist Party (EAJ/PNV) was the leading party in the Basque Country, that it was extremely popular and enjoyed support from all social classes. The prime task of the socialists was, therefore, to aim at reconciling in a suitable manner the Basque privilege with the prerrogatives of the Central State..." The Communist Party was forced to leave the Basque Government after its break with the Government of the Republic in 1947 with the attack on Indalecio Prieto, to whom the communists attributed a pro-American trend in the Atlantic Charter and in conversations with the monarchists regarding the possible substitution of Franco by Juan de Borbon. 1951 witnessed a strike involving 250,000 workers. The repression was extremely severe and dismembered the Basque organizations. The Americans broke the theoretical boycott of the democratic nations against Franco by granting him a loan of 62.5 million dollars in exchange for United States bases in Spain.
ETA was born in the summer of 1959 out of EKIN and EG. When Lehendakari Aguirre died in 1960, some members of ETA were present at the funeral. The organization praised the new Lehendakari, Leizaola (No. 12 Zutik - Caracas). "Although ETA has broken off relations with the Basque Nationalist Party, it hopes to return to the great abertzale (patriots) party" (Zutik, April 1961 - special edition). The event of the unsuccessful derailing of the train occurred, marking the beginning of the second phase (Zutik - Bayonne - 20th November). The First Assembly began to prepare itself at the end of the summer of 1961 at a time when it had only a few militants. The Second Assembly was held in Landes, north of Bayonne in 1963.
The Thirth and Fourth Assemblies: in the history of ETA the rifts in the organization generally represent important landmarks as each time a new Assembly formed. When there is a complete break, two new assemblies are established. Kemen was brought out as the internal publication of ETA and the organization changed its definition of "a patriotic non-confesionary movement" to "It is not possible for nationalism to be the sole basis for patriotic struggle", and "the close connection between the Basque bourgeoisie, the Franco regime and foreign oppression is highly condemned". "ETA's only arms are contacts with reality and its unreserved identification with the cause of the oppressed. Nothing else is needed in the struggle for the national and popular liberation of the Basque Country." From this point on an increasing emphasis on Marxist concepts can be observed. The organization began to make references to the "need to begin requisitioning to support the organization" (Zutik 32, August 1965). The Navarrese group "Tratxe" joined forces with ETA as "their ideas coincided one hundred per cent"; The Aberri-Eguna (Day of the Homeland) in 1966 was held on the bridges of Hendaye in order to "break away from any commitments involving the folkloric vocation of the Basque Nationalist Party in Gasteiz". ETA Autonomous Group: functioned from 1966-1968 led by "El Cabra".
The first death at the hands of ETA took place near Tolosa. Txabi Echebarrieta opened fire on the Guardia Civil at a road block, killing the agent Pardines and dying himself - 7th June 1968. On 2nd August of the same year ETA killed the police inspector Meliton Manzans in Irun. THere was now no going back on the fight to the death. In 1970 the Trial of Burgos took place. The court passed sentence on 13 defendants accused of belong to the Spanish Workers' Socialist Party in Vizcaya, among them Rubial, who had spent many years in prison since the end of the war. Joseba Elosegui threw himself in front of General Franco in San Sebastian as a human torch to protest against the burning of Guernica. Heavy sentences were passed in Madrid on five Basque militants: Sabino de Arana, Francisco Javier Bareno, Ramon Iruzalde, Francisco Eskubi, and Eusebio Irarte in November 1970. The following events were of vital importance: 1)
The Sixth Assembly of ETA began on 31st August; 2) The German Consul was kidnapped in San Sebastian; and 3) the Supreme Court-Martial in Burgos.
The Court-Martial of Burgos: For the Basques, whatever their ideology, 1970 was the year of Burgos. The trial involving 16 Basques made news worldwide and soon went from a judgement of the Franco regime to a judgement of totalitarian fascism. Here important contributions were made by the people with their mobilizations, democratic organizations all over the world and exiled Basque institutions - the Basque Government and key figures in the Basque Nationalist Party: Irujo at international contact level, and Leizaola and Joseba Rezola through their visit to Rome: contacts with the Christian Democrat Government. The two politicians were received at the Vatican and were able to explain their position: the trial was to be held behind closed doors, on the basis of the Concordat, because there were priests among the accused. Only the Church could open the door. The door was opened. It will never be known whether this meeting was the cause but the fact remains that the door was opened. Thus, international reporters were allowed in and the whole world came to know of the trial and the circumstances surrounding it. Death sentences were passed but pardons were granted on the following day. There were 100 Basque prisoners at 31st December 1971. In 1972 the Aberri-Eguna was celebrated in Bayonne on a joint basis. That year ETA became revitalized with the forces of "Egibatasuna" (United Truth), the key figure of which was Inaki Mugica Arregui.
In December 1973 Carrero Blanco was killed in an attack by ETA-V "Ezkerra". In 1975 the State of Exception was declared for Guipuzcoa and Vizcaya (April). The Anti-Terrorist Law was brought into Force in August of the same year. The cruellest of turtures began to take place. The priest Eustasio Erquicia was the focus of much attention because of the brutality to which he was subjected. A violent action was directed at the Basque Church with the arrest of Monseigneur Anoveros, the Bishop of Bilbao. An international scandal arose when death penalties were requested for Garmendia, Otaegui, and Juan Paredes Mano, "Txiki". Strikes of great importance took place. In the end, "Txiki", Otaegui, and three members of the FRAP were executed. These events marked the beginning of a new phase of action/repression in the middle of which came the death of Franco on 20th November 1975.
When Franco died, there were 500 members and supporters of just one branch of ETA alone in prison (the politico-military branch). The KAS (Socialist Patriotic Commission) came into being. The kidnappings continued. The Seventh Assembly of ETA was held in September 1976. The first contacts between ETA-PM (politico-military) and the Government were established and ETA-M (military) had an official observer. The truce lasted for four months, until the death of Itxaso on 7th March 1977 and the shooting of two members of Guardia Civil (Spanish rural police) in Mondragon on 13th March. The truce continued until 24th May, the beginning of the electoral campaign. In the meantime, the EAJ/PNV (Basque Nationalist Party) held its first meeting in the Anoeta Pelota Court in San Sebastian and on 19th January the Ikurrina or Basque National Flag was legalized. A second amnesty was pronounced. At the beginning of April more key ETA prisoners were released but the organization held out for the release of all its members in prison. On 20th May the central Government signed the decree of total Amnesty.
The first democratic general elections were held on 15th June 1977 - a first step towards a political map of the Basque Country. Navarre was not able to be included in the first Basque General Council, the first sitting of which was presided over by Juan de Ajuriaguerra. Ramon Rubial Cavia later took over Ajuriaguerra's task. On 6th December 1978 the "Referendum for the Spanish Constitution" was held, with "abstention" or "no's" on the part of the majority of the Basque voters. The Statute of Guernica: the project was approved in San Sebastian on 24th December 1978 and sanctioned on 29th December in the Casa de Juntas (Meeting House) at Guernica.
Blas Pedro Uberuaga, buber@u.washington.edu
Taken from "Folklore and Traditions", one of the series of "The Basque Country, Come and then pass the word" 2nd edition, January 1993 Author: Angel Murua, Published by: Gobierno Vasco, Departamento de Comercio, Consuma, y Turismo. Viceconsejeria de Turismo.
Even most primitive Man felt the need to give meaning to the phenomena and natural cycles which conditioned his existence. He interpreted them, named them, found an explanation for them, and with these answers built up his own myths, legends, and religions. These formed the framework for his relation with nature and with anything else in his environment which was incomprehensible or supposedly magic.
Primitive Basque man was converted to Christianity very late. He was also all but cut off from other cultures by an inhospitable and very inaccessible geography. Thus he came to invent a vast collection of myths and legends which still exist today thanks to the great Basque oral tradition. For him the mountains and valleys developed an almost human significance, and in the bowels of the earth ran rivers of milk, out of the reach of mortals. Two powers ruled nature and their designs conditioned human life: the god of the firmament, "Ost" or "Ortzi" - equivalent to the Roman god Jupiter, the Greek Zeus or the Germanic Thor, and "Ilargia", the moon, a feminine force which emerged from the world of hidden things. "Ost" and "Eguzki", the light of the sun, belonged to the day, to the earth, since it was from the earth that the sun rose and to the earth that it returned every day. "Ilargia" though, belonged to the world of the deceased, of souls, to the hidden side of existence and nature. The Basques are very closely in touch with the moon and its cycles, and this figure appears in numerous myths, rites and legends. The female divinity of the ancient Basques was "Mari", the lady or gentlewoman who lived in the caves which reach deep down to the center of the earth. Although she could take on different forms, she showed herself as a breathtakingly beautiful woman, and moved from one mountain to the next crossing the sky like a fireball. Any area which holds itself in esteem will have a model of the dwelling of Mari placed on its highest peak, for example the mountains of Gorbea, Anboto, Aketegi or the Aralar range...
Important characters somewhere between gods and men are the lords of the wood, the "basajaunak", uncommonly strong shaggy beings, who worked the land before man. Man gained the right to cultivate the land when San Martin, having won a bet, seized the seeds from the lords of the wood. Beside brooks and on shores, the "lamiak", or "lamintildeak" comb their long hair with golden combs. These seductive creatures resembling mermaids - or who have bird's legs - can tempt mortals to their downfall.
The house, "etxea" is the refuge and temple of the Basque people - the element which gives them their identity and their name, and which is preserved generation after generation. The home is protected against evil spirits by fire, laurel, ash leaves or dried thistle heads, "eguzki-lorea", literally, flower of the sun. The home, every home, was perpetuated - after the arrival of Christianity - in the church, where every family had its place reserved, the "yarleku", just as in a graveyard there is a family tomb. The arrival of Christianity diminished the public circulation for these beliefs, but they continued to be shared in private. When Jesus Christ, "Kixmie" arrived, the super-natural beings to whom the Basques, before Christianization, attributed almost miraculous abilities and deeds, disappeared. And the beliefs began to become myths and legends.
Places Where Spirits are Seen in Basque Imagination
In the mountains which surround Oiartzun there are some mysterious circles of stones set into the earth. These are the work of Intxitxu, the invisible spirit who builds cromlechs.
In Ataun, if you go towards the openings of the grottos of Armontaitz and Malkorburu, you can see the strange prints of Irelu, the underground spirit who seizes anyone who bothers him. On the summit of Ubedi you can catch the strains of his song, mingled with the whistling wind.
Between the Pentildeas de Orduntildea and the caves of Balzola (Dima) and Montecristo (Mondragon), lives a dreadful snake, Erensuge, who attracts human beings with his breath, only to devour them.
Sometimes in Albistur and Zegama you may be surprised by a sudden jolt of the flock of sheep and at the same time the disturbing echo of distant cries. This is how the Basajaun, the lords of the woods, announce their presence, thus warning the shepherds of the area that there is a storm on the way.
Kortezubi. Round about the caves of Santimamiñe, Sagastigorri and Covairada, you might come across a completely red-haired bull, cow, or calf with a fierce expression in its eyes. This is Beigorri, guardian of the houses of Mari, the principal spirit or goddess of Basque mythology. The animal is depicted in the prehistoric paintings on the walls of the Santimamiñe caves.
,
The Basque Flag or Ikurriña
(Article written by Xabier Ormaetxea
and Blas Uberuaga)The Basque flag was created in 1894 by Sabino Arana (founder of Basque nationalism).
The name of the flag is ikurriña (in Italian ikurrigna). Although the meaning of this word is flag, it is actually used only for the Basque flag; Basque people prefer to use the Spanish word bandera for other flags (when they are speaking in Basque, of course).The ikurrina was originally created only for Bizkaia (the main region of Euskadi), but it became very popular and the rest of the Basque regions (4 regions in Spain and 3 in France) accepted it as the flag for all of Euskadi. In the begining only the Basque Nationalist Party (founded by Sabino Arana on July 31st, 1895) used it, but during the 2nd Spanish Republic (1931-1939) all of the democratic parties accepted it. In 1936, the Basque Autonomous Government was created (it's Lehendakari (president) was Jose Antonio Agirre) with representation of all the democratic parties, and the ikurrina was declared, by law, the Basque flag.
After the Spanish war, the dictatorship declared the ikurriña illegal, and it was completely forbiden and declared as a separatist symbol. During the 2nd World War there was a Basque brigade in the French free army, and the ikurriña of the brigade was condecorated (because of the battle of Point de Grave, near Burdeaux).
After the last Spanish dictatorship, and with the approval of the Basque autonomy, the ikurriña was declared again by law as the official Basque flag.
In the Basque-French country, it has always been allowed and after World War II it was officially used in the town halls together with the French flag.
Significance of the ikurriña:
Historically, the flag of Bizkaia was red. When Sabino Arana created the ikurrina, he wanted to give it the meaning Bizkaia, independence and God, so the red color of the field represents Bizkaia or Euskadi, the green St. Andrew's cross stands for the The Independence of the Basque Country. It is green because it also symbolizes the oak tree of Gernika, the symbol of Basque freedom. The white cross represents God.
The green St. Andrew's cross: In the Middles Ages (year 867), there was a battle between the Basques and the Spaniards in a place called Padura. This battle was on St. Andrew's day. The stones of the place were stained with blood and since that day that place has been called Arrigorriaga (Place of red stones). It is not clear if this battle is historical or legendary, but the St. Andrew's cross has often been used in Basque flags, like those of the Consulate of Bilbao, The Naval flag of Biscay, and in some Carlists flags during the Carlists wars (1836-1876).
Measurements and proportions:
Originaly: In a field of 500 cm by 280 cm the crosses had a width of 20 cm. Since 1936: With the same field, the crosses were enlarged to 43 cm in width, to make them more visible, especially the green one.
Xabier Ormaetxea (xormaetx@sarenet.es)
Blas Uberuaga (buber@u.washington.edu)
Some Words in Euskara
Agur Good-bye, greetings, (hello.. ) Bai Yes Ez No Kaixo Hi Zer moduz? How are you? Egun on Good morning Arratsalde on Good afternoon Gabon Good evening Gero arte See you later Mesedez Please Mila esker, eskerrik asko Thank you Ez horregatik You are welcome, my pleasure San Martin Txiki eta Basajaunak
Saint Martin and the BasajaunsLong ago, only the basajauns (lords of the woods) knew how to plant, harvest and mill wheat to make flour. The basajauns kept this knowledge to themselves, but San Martin worked out a plan to steal the secret and give it to the human race.
San Martin made a bet with the basajauns to see who could jump over the heaps of wheat they had harvested. The basajauns laughed at San Martin, because they knew that a mere human would be no competition for them, and they laughed at his big floppy shoes. They all jumped over the wheat easily, but when San Martin tried, he landed on top of one of the heaps, and the basajauns laughed again.
Then San Martin laughed, and he laughed last and best, but quietly, because his trick had worked. Now, the basajauns are big and slow-witted, but when they saw San Martin walking away home, with his big, floppy shoes full of grains of their wheat, they realised that they had been tricked. When they stopped laughing, San Martin began to run for his life, and it's a good thing that he did.
He was already a kilometer away when one of the basajauns threw a hatchet. The lords of the woods may be slow, but they are strong. San Martin saw the hatchet coming, and he ducked behind a chestnut tree just in time, because the hatchet struck the tree and split it in half.
Now San Martin had the seeds, but he didn't know when was the right time of the year to sow them. Fortunately, a man was passing by the cave of one of the basajauns, and he heard him singing:
"If the humans knew this song
They'd be well informed.
When the leaf is in the bud
Then you sow the corn.
When the leaf falls off the trees
Then you sow the wheat.
When San Lorenzo's feast** comes round
Sow the turnip in the ground."The man told San Martin what he heard, and San Martin told all the humans, and that is how cultivation spread through the world.
Another time, San Martin wanted to know how to make a saw, so humans could cut down trees as the basajauns did and make mills to grind the wheat to make flour. The basajauns wouldn't tell, because they wanted to keep all their secrets to themselves. So San Martin sent a man to the basajauns to tell them that San Martin had discovered the secret of making a saw. "So he has seen the leaves of the chestnut tree, has he?" the basajaun said.
That is how San Martin learned to use the chestnut leaf as a model for making a saw blade, and humans were able to cut down trees and build flour mills. But there was a problem. The axles of the mills kept wearing out, and a lot of time was wasted in replacing them every time. So San Martin sent a man to tell the basajauns that San Martin had learned how to keep the axles from wearing out. "So he has learned to polish the axles smooth, has he?" the basajaun said.
[Variant: "So he has learned to make the axles of alder-wood, has he?"]
And again, when men started to work with metals and needed to know how to weld pieces of iron together, San Martin sent a man to tell the basajauns that San Martin had learned how to weld.
"So he knows how to sprinkle the iron with clayey water, does he?" was the response.
Perhaps it was because the basajauns admired the humans for their great cleverness that they used to give the shepherds warning of a coming storm by whistling.
*"Txiki" (pronounced "cheeky") means "little" in an affectionate sense. San Martin is often called simply "Martintxiki" or "Samartitxiki" in the stories.
**The Feast of San Lorenzo is 7 February.
These aetiological (causational) tales are the folk explanation of the transition from the pagan to the Christian culture, according to Seve Calleja. A variant from Gipuzkoa, in which wheat is replaced by maize (which wasn't introduced into Basque Country until explorers brought it from the New World), was told to the collector Juan Garmendia Larrañaga by an 88-year-old man in 1992.
- "The Basques are courteous and agreeable and have a trustworthy bearing. Their houses and their clothes are clean and their customs make their land a pleasant place.
Despite living on the borders of both France and Spain, the Basques have their own character and outlook, different from the French and the Spanish. The language is different in words, formation and intonation, with place names that sound very strange, almost all of them deriving from their ancient roots.
The Basques are as lively and affable as one could imagine, and they will often dance and play music even after the hardest day's work. Travelers cannot fail to note the difference between the cheerful serenity of the Basques and the seriousness of the Castilians, their neighbours."
Freidrich Heinrich Alexander HUMBOLDT
Baron Humboldt German geographer and diplomat (1769-1859)
From:DIARY OF A JOURNEY THROUGH SPAIN
"The Basques are a 'cosmic' race that can be found in every continent and on every sea, giving an example of diligence, integrity and modesty."
José VASCONCELOS Mexican writer and philosopher (1881-1959)
"A large part of southern and central Europe was populated by Basques or people related to the Basques."
Josef WIRTH German politician (1879-1956)
Secretary General, Munich Oriental Society
From: THE BASQUES, THEIR ORIGINS AND EMIGRATIONS'
"The Basque language is the despair of scholars and the most mysterious of all known languages."
Aldous HUXLEY
English novelist and essayist (1894-1963)
"If the Basques have preserved their language and their own distinctive stock, the explanation is not to be found in the geographical features of their land, but in their character. Anyone who approaches the Basques without prejudices will find them of great interest, not as an exception among the other races in the world, but as a living museum of man's history, where one can understand and see what remains of an ancient Europe, now disappeared from other regions, but which is still alive in this peaceful corner of the Pyrenees."
Rodney GALLOP English writer
From: THE BASQUES
"An ivory tower should be built to protect the Basque people and their language, to ensure that this jewel does not disappear."
Niko MARR Georgian writer and philosopher(1865-1934)
Rector of the University of Tiflis Minister of Culture in the Czar's Government
"Chairs in Basque should be set up at all universities, to prevent the loss of anything to do with the Basques. Such a move would benefit everyone. It is the only means we have of knowing what words are the oldest in Europe, perhaps the world."
Alan H. KELSON DE MONTIGYNI
Secretary, International Anthropology & Linguistic Circle, Philadelphia
"The preservation of euskara, the Basque language, is one of the most extraordinary phenomena in the history of philology. It is the only case of an archaic language surviving, of a language resisting the invasions of other languages for centuries and retaining its own personality."
Antonio TOBAR Rector of the University of Salamanca
"Euskara is the only surviving European language that predates the arrival of the Indo-European languages. Its preservation is providential. It is the best contribution that the Basques could make to the study of European, not to say world civilization."
Nils Collet VOGT Norwegian poet (1864-1923)
Professor at the University of Oslo
"The tree of Gernika has preserved the antiquity that illumes their elders; no tyrant has stripped its leaves, nor gives it shade to convert or traitor."
Fray Gabriel Tellez TIRSO DE MOLINA
Spanish writer(1583-1648)
"The Basques are one of those singular nation=islands that are found in the world, entirely different from the peoples that surround them, and their language, in the midst of so many simple languages, is an island that can be compared to the peaks that emerge from the waters of a flooded land.
The Basques are perhaps unique in the world, and certainly in Europe, and their origins remain unknown to us. It is astonishing to think that, at the end of the 19th century, prodigal in discoveries of every kind, the origin of this nation should still be a mystery."
Lewy D'ABARZIAGUE
"The Basques always preserved their independence, their autonomy, as we now say, making use of a Greek word. A long time before the Swiss had formed their confederation, Iruracbat; long before the English had won for themselves their Magna Carta; long before the North Americans and the French had proclaimed their declarations of the rights of man and the citizen; they had organized a representative government, and their representatives met beneath the tree of Guernica. Thus they had government for the people, by the people, they had self government."
Alejo PEYRET French writer
From a conference published in the 'EL SIGLO' newspaper, November 13, 1879
"The Basques are perhaps the last survivors of a prehistoric population of Europe, pushed to the place they now occupy, close to the Pyrenees, by the Indo-European peoples."
Professor VALLOIS
"The Basques are the pure descendants of the people that occupied Europe in the Paleolithic and which, in the rest of the continent, crossbred with the arrivals from Asia."
Doctors EYGUEM and SAINTPAUL Pasteur Institute
" ... after studying the customary laws of Europe, I place the Basque Foral Laws above the Swiss laws, also endorsed by their centuries' long existence. For their virtues, their union and above all the local freedoms they enjoy, the Basques provide us with an example that one scarcely knows how to praise enough, maintaining their allegiance to the best social constitution in Europe."
From: "L'OrganisaUon de la familie"
Fédéric LE PLAY French economist and sociologist (18O6- 1882)
"What is, then, this ancient people whose traditions celebrate unflagging valour and which, even in our times, has given so often proof of its heroism? Where do they come from? What is their relation to the other inhabitants of Europe and the rest of the world? These are impossible questions to answer. The Basques are the mysterious race par excellence. They are alone among the multitude of the rest of mankind. They have no known family."
Elisée RECLUS
French writer and geographer (183O- 19O5)
"The four Basque and Navarre provinces are the oldest, most historic, most independent-minded, with the most traditional freedom ... they are the freest provinces, and the happiest."
Emilio Castelar Spanish writer and politician (1832-1899)
(From the daily Spanish parliamentary record, August 23, 1873;p. 1,818)
"Everyone who has visited the Basque country longs to return; it is a blessed land." Victor Hugo French poet and novelist (18O2- 1885) "The freedoms of the Basques, like all those begot and weaned by history, profit those that may avail of them and do harm to no man, unless we consider harm the understandable envy that they excite in others."
Antonio Canovas del Castillo Spanish politician and man of letters (1825-1897)
"I ask you to note that, whether because of the layout of the country, or the tremendous courage of its people, or because of the strength of its attachment to its freedoms, when a nation has been in a position to offer stiff resistance to any attempt at destroying its laws, that nation has resisted. I would also ask you to note that when by dint of striving to conquer this remarkable unity, an attempt was made to terminate the Foral laws, this could only be done by violent means ... In any case, we have the example of the Basque provinces, which continue to live with a set of political and civil laws that are completely different from those in effect in the rest of Spain."
Francisco Pi y Maragall Catalonian politician and legal adviser (1824-1901)
Claudia Verano de DaMetz
